Groundbreaking research reveals how toddlers' responses to distress can predict antisocial behavior well into adolescence
Imagine watching a toddler encounter someone in distress. While one child might offer a comforting hug or a worried look, another might respond with anger, mockery, or even a hit. These early reactions aren't just passing moments—they may hold clues to future behavior that scientists are only beginning to decipher.
What makes some individuals capable of profound empathy while others display a chilling disregard for those around them? This question has puzzled philosophers, scientists, and parents for generations.
Groundbreaking research now suggests that the answers may be found much earlier than we ever suspected—in the first few years of life. A landmark study by Rhee and colleagues has revealed that how toddlers respond to others' distress can serve as a powerful crystal ball, predicting antisocial behavior well into adolescence 5 .
This research isn't just academic—it carries real-world implications for identifying at-risk children and developing early interventions that could potentially alter life trajectories. By understanding the early signs of empathic dysfunction, we may develop new approaches to foster healthier social development and reduce antisocial behavior later in life.
To understand this research, we must first distinguish between two crucial concepts: Concern for Others and Disregard for Others. These aren't merely opposite ends of the same spectrum—they represent distinct patterns of responding to others' distress with different developmental pathways.
Represents a composite construct encompassing the behavioral, affective, and cognitive factors associated with empathic and prosocial reactions 3 .
Represents active, negative responses to others' distress 5 . This goes beyond mere absence of concern—it involves reactions charged with negative affect and aggressive responses.
The Rhee et al. study stands out in developmental psychology for its rigorous methodology and unprecedented longitudinal scope. Researchers tracked a representative sample of 956 same-sex twins from Colorado across multiple developmental periods, creating a rare dataset that could connect early behavior with later outcomes 5 .
The researchers employed a multi-method, multi-informant approach to assess concern and disregard for others between ages 14-36 months:
Researchers directly observed children's responses to simulated distress scenarios, such as an adult pretending to injure themselves or another child displaying upset. These observations were systematically coded for specific behaviors indicating concern (helping, comforting) or disregard (anger, aggression, blame).
Mothers completed standardized questionnaires assessing their children's typical responses to others in distress, providing insight into behaviors across different contexts.
Antisocial behavior was subsequently assessed at multiple points between ages 4-17 using parent reports, teacher ratings, and eventually self-reports, creating a comprehensive picture of behavioral development.
This methodological triangulation—using both observed behavior and maternal reports—strengthened the validity of their assessments. As Blair notes in his commentary, it was particularly the observational measures that proved most predictive of future antisocial behavior 8 .
The findings from this extensive study challenged some conventional assumptions while providing robust evidence for others. The most striking discovery concerned the predictive power of early disregard for others.
| Assessment Method | Antisocial Behavior Outcome | Predictive Strength | Statistical Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Observed Disregard (14-36 months) | Parent-reported (4-12 years) | Strong | p < .01 |
| Observed Disregard (14-36 months) | Teacher-reported (7-12 years) | Strong | p < .01 |
| Observed Disregard (14-36 months) | Self-reported (17 years) | Strong | p < .01 |
| Mother-rated Disregard (14-36 months) | Parent-reported (4-12 years) | Moderate | p < .05 |
The data revealed that observed disregard for others in toddlerhood predicted antisocial behavior across multiple informants (parents, teachers, and self-reports) and across significant time spans—in some cases predicting behavior 14 years later 5 . Even after controlling for concern for others, disregard for others remained a powerful predictor of a higher-order antisocial behavior factor.
Perhaps surprisingly, concern for others did not consistently inversely predict antisocial behavior in this study. This suggests that the presence of active disregard may be more clinically meaningful than the absence of concern when identifying children at risk for future antisocial behavior 5 .
The implications of these findings extend far beyond academic interest, offering practical applications for early identification and intervention.
Traditional approaches to identifying children at risk for antisocial behavior often focus on more obvious behavioral problems that emerge in school-aged children. This research suggests that assessment should begin much earlier—in the toddler and preschool years—and should specifically target responses to others' distress 5 .
Through twin analyses, the researchers made another crucial discovery: the covariation between observed disregard for others and antisocial behavior appeared to be due primarily to shared environmental influences rather than genetic factors 5 .
Rather than solely focusing on promoting prosocial behavior, this research suggests we should also target the reduction of active disregard for others.
Conducting this type of developmental research requires specialized methods and measures. The tools used by researchers provide valuable insight into how empathy and its opposite are studied in young children.
| Research Component | Function | Application in Rhee et al. Study |
|---|---|---|
| Simulated Distress Scenarios | To elicit naturalistic responses to others' distress in a controlled setting | Researchers created standardized scenarios where adults or peers displayed pain or distress |
| Behavioral Coding Systems | To systematically categorize and quantify observed behaviors | Developed specific codes for helping, concern, hypothesis testing, anger, aggression, etc. |
| Multi-informant Assessment | To capture behavior across different contexts and reduce bias | Combined direct observation with mother reports |
| Longitudinal Design | To track developmental pathways and predict future outcomes | Followed children from toddlerhood through adolescence |
| Twin Study Methodology | To disentangle genetic and environmental influences | Recruited monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs |
While the Rhee et al. study provided groundbreaking insights, it also opened new questions for exploration. Future research needs to examine exactly how shared environmental influences shape the development of disregard for others and its connection to antisocial behavior 5 .
Additionally, research examining potential neurobiological correlates of early disregard for others could help identify biological pathways that interact with environmental factors. As Blair notes, "Many psychiatric conditions are associated with deficits or even lack of empathy" , suggesting that multiple levels of analysis—from behavioral to biological—will be necessary for a complete understanding.
The study also highlights the need for research on whether and how early disregard for others can be effectively modified through intervention. If disregard for others is indeed malleable in early childhood, this could represent a critical opportunity for prevention efforts.
The research by Rhee and colleagues fundamentally changes how we view early responses to distress. What might previously have been dismissed as "just a phase" or "typical toddler behavior" may in fact carry profound implications for future development. Active disregard for others—responding to distress with anger, hostility, or aggression—emerges as a particularly potent predictor of antisocial behavior years later.
This knowledge brings both responsibility and opportunity. As a society, we now have better tools to identify children who may be at risk for future behavioral problems. More importantly, we have a crucial window for intervention during the early years when environmental influences are powerful and patterns are still being established.
By recognizing and responding to these early signs, we move closer to a future where children who struggle with empathy receive the support they need to develop healthier ways of relating to others—potentially altering life trajectories and building a more compassionate society for all.
The findings from this research remind us that the roots of empathy and its opposite run deep, and that the earliest years of life may hold keys to understanding some of our most challenging social problems.